8.+Sample+Lessons

Writing as Discourse
toc __**Background**__: Relationships: Writing to communicate interesting ideas means writing about things in relation to each other. A solitary person, place, thing or idea is not focused enough to make a truly interesting topic to write about. Good ideas and good thinking take place when we discuss ideas in relation to each other.
 * Writing Connects Ideas

1. Discourse 2. What + What 3. Nouns and Verbs 4. Rules

Grade Range: 2-10 //**To download this lesson as a Word Document, click here**// __Objective__: Students will understand that the purpose of writing is to communicate an idea with another person. They will understand that to do this effectively, many elements used in informal discourse must be applied. __Materials__: dry erase board __Time:__ 30 to 45 minutes __Process:__ Student: Mom, I got a C on my report. Mom: Why did you only get a C? Student: Because I handed it in late. At this point, take this discourse and summarize it into a statement; I got a C on my report because it was late. Read or perform the next exchange; Student 1: Did you hear? Sally is moving to Fairbanks. Student 2: Really? Why? Student 1: Because her dad got a new job there. Summarize this discourse into the following statement; Sally is moving to Fairbanks because her dad got a new job there. Read or perform the next exchange; Student: Mr. Teacher, I won’t be here tomorrow. Teacher: Why? Student: We are going to Delta to see my brother’s basketball game. Summarize the discourse in the following statement; I won’t be in class because I am going to Delta. OR I won’t be in class because I am going to Delta to see my brother’s basketball game. Now read or perform a few more of these types of exchanges and have the students try to summarize the discourse into a statement just as you have done. Make sure all of the summarized statements contain the word “because”. Emphasize that in each of these exchanges, new information has been presented and explained. Show that in each of the exchanges, if only one part had taken place it wouldn’t have been effective communication. For example, would a student simply tell his mother he got a C and then walk away? Possibly, but more likely the mother would ask for some kind of explanation, so she asks “why” and expects an answer. Would a student tell a friend that Sally is moving and leave it at that? No. They include more information – that she is moving to Fairbanks. This brings the other student to ask what is implied – “why?”. The main idea to emphasize to your students is that effective discourse includes elements that explain the idea fully to the person you are communicating with. __Assessment:__ Students should be able to write a correct enthymeme – one that effectively summarizes examples of discourse that you have given.
 * WRITING AS DISCOURSE LESSON **
 * 1) Ask students what some of the reasons are that we write. You will get responses like, “For class assignments”, or “letter writing”. Write the responses on the board. If they don’t offer them up, include other reasons, like, “to tell stories, to explain how to do something (directions, recipes), to explain how or why something happened (history, literature analysis). There are many more, so feel free to use as many examples as necessary for the age group.
 * 2) Point out that in all of these types of writing, the purpose was to communicate some specific information from one person to another person who didn’t know much about that topic until they read about it.
 * 3) Explain that most of the oral communication between them and their teachers, parents, and friends, centers around the idea of offering up some new information, and then discussing it in more detail so that it can be clearly understood. Use some of the following examples (you can read these aloud, role play with another teacher or teacher aide, or put them on handouts for the students to read as parts);
 * 1) Look over all of the summarized statements you and the students have just done. Introduce the idea that these are “Summary statements, otherwise known as //enthymemes//”. They each summarize a discourse.
 * Practice this activity often.

Funneling
__**Background**__: With the enthymeme, brainstorming isn't limited to merely coming up with something to write about. Brainstorming is key in all parts of the process, and there are many good tools and strategies that can help students focus their brainstorming efforts to get the results they want.
 * Brainstorming for Ideas and Focus

__**FUNNELING LESSON**__ Grade Range: 1-12 //**To download this lesson as a Word Document, click here**// __Objective:__ Students will understand what “funneling” is, how the technique works, and why it is a useful tool. __Materials__: A funnel, a list of “Essentials of Life Topics” (attached) __Process__: Show the funnel to the class. Ask what it is and what its function is. Students should eventually arrive at, “To take something big and make it smaller.” Then write the word “Sports” on the board and draw a funnel around it like this;   Discuss the idea that “sports” is a big subject. There are many different kinds of sports and even then there are many parts of sports. For example, basketball is a sport, but there are lots of things to know about basketball. There are skills, such as dribbling, passing, and shooting. There are positions like defense, and point guard. There are strategies such as full court press or man to man defense, etc. And even these things can be discussed more specifically, such as chest passes, bounce passes, and overhead passes. At this point, add some things to the funnel so that the students can relate what you have just discussed to the idea of funneling;

You can then move into personal experience. Simply ask if anyone has learned to do a proper bounce pass or if they have seen a spectacular bounce pass. If they have you may get a response like, “My big brother showed me how to do a real one.” Now you can add that to the bottom of the funnel. If no student happens to have decent input here you can make up or offer some personal experience of your own. Reinforce that you started with a vague idea – sports – and ended up with a specific idea – the time my big brother showed me how to do a bounce pass. Practice a few more of these with the students on the board. Use topics such as transportation, clothing, housing, or food. Always try to bring the end of the funnel to connect with some personal experience. Give the students a handout with some //*//**//Essentials of Life//** (see bottom of lesson) topics. How many and what topics you include will depend on the age of the students. With younger students you can draw the funnels for them on the handout, older students can draw their own. Tell them to work on funneling several topics down as far as possible. Walk around and observe as they do this. Make sure each student has at least one good funnel. Acknowledge all funnels that are done correctly. There will almost always be some good ones that students do that you can put on the board to reinforce the process. “Thomas has done a good funnel about exercise,” and write it on the board. Invariably, there will be lots of lateral lists – instead of going from bigger to smaller, some will go from one topic to another. For example, they many start with food, then pizza, then go to cheese pizza, pepperoni pizza, Hawaiian pizza, etc. At that point they are not getting more specific, they are merely making lists. It is important that as soon as you see a student doing this, or even at the beginning, you point it out and demonstrate how this is not helpful in making a topic more specific. This will be the most common funneling mistake. If some students are not doing this, continue guiding them through the funnel with questions until they do one successfully on their own. For younger students, the funnels may be much simpler than for older ones. When guiding students through a funnel, try to phrase your questioning in the same way each time, so that they can learn this questioning technique themselves. For example, if you start with food, say “What kind of food?” If they say pizza, say, “What kind of pizza?” At that point if they say pepperoni, say, “Why pepperoni?” or “Where did you last eat a pepperoni.” Always direct students to ask in terms of Who, What, Where, Why, When, or How. __Assessment__: All students should be able to do at least one good funnel and recognize it as such. Click here to get //**Essentials of Life Topics**//
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*Brainstorming for Ideas and Focus Grade range: 3-12 //**To download this lesson as a Word document, click here**// __Objective__: Students will understand how to ask implied questions, and how they are a tool to make general statements more specific. __Materials__: Chalk/dry erase board, Implied Questions handouts (sample included here). __Process__: Write the following sentence on the board; “The dog ran away from the boy.” Then say, I have some questions about that statement. It doesn’t give me much information.” Write the following on the board, Why did the dog run away? How old was the boy? Did the boy do something mean to the dog? Did something else scare the dog? Is the dog bad? Was the dog on a leash? Explain that if you had more information available like this, it would explain the statement a lot better and would make it more interesting. Then write more sentences on the board, such as; Bruno finished his homework. The team played well today. The students completed a project. Begin orally demonstrating how to question these sentences (you don’t need to write them on the board. You are giving the students an idea of how to quickly question the material.). Start rattling them off quickly, sentence by sentence; Who is Bruno? What was the homework for? Did he have a lot of it? How long did it take him to finish? Was it hard for him? What kind of team? What are they called? Did they score a lot of points? Was their opponent tough? Etc, etc. By the time you get to the third sentence, most of the students will be chiming in with their own questions. Stop and explain that these kinds of questions are called “Implied Questions”. Explain what “implied” means. Point out that they are very important because they can help us get more information and make things more specific and more interesting. Also point out that you can call them IQ’s for short (remember, you are establishing lingo here). Give the students the hand out of Implied Questions. You can make your own hand out of more difficult or easier sentences depending on the grade level of the students. Depending on the ages of the students, have them write anywhere from 2 to 5 implied questions for a number of sentences determined by you. Remind them that the point of the questions is to get more information. __Assessment:__

Each student should be able to come up with at least two implied questions for the sentences given. If they can, you know they have a basic understanding of this technique. If they can only come up with one, need constant guidance, or do something irrelevant like writing about the sentence or making up information, they do not have this concept and will need further explanation and practice Click here to get //**Implied Questions e**//xercises

The What Statement: Identifying Relationships
Grade Range: K-12
 * Relationships: What + What

//**To download this lesson as a Word document, click here**//

__Objective__: Students will understand the elements of the “What” statement must contain two variables and show a relationship between them.

__Materials__: Barbell, picture “American Gothic” by Grant Wood (sample included here).

__Time__: The first time this is introduced it should take 30 to 45 minutes. After students have been introduced, later practice using a picture will take about 10 minutes.

__Process__: 1. On the board, write the statement “Boys like girls.” Ask the students if it is a sentence (use whatever methods you have taught in your class to make this determination). Show the barbell to the class and ask them to identify the parts of the barbell (two bells and a bar). Explain how symbolically we can relate this to the sentence you have just put on the board. 2. Draw the barbell and put “boys” in one bell and “girls” in the other. Ask the students what the relationship or connection between boys and girls is in this sentence. After they respond “like”, write that in the bar. Explain that the bar shows the relationship between two important things – boys and girls. 3. Do this again with several other examples, such as “Cats eat mice,” “Grandma bakes cookies”, and “Johnny catches fish.” 4. Ask the students if they notice anything that the words in the bells have in common in terms of grammar. Some may recognize they are all nouns (if they don’t, you can just say it). They should also recognize that the word on the bar is a verb. Reinforce that the verb shows the relationship between the two nouns. You can ask, “What is the relationship between Johnny and fish?” – “He catches them.” 5. For older students, make sure you also use sample statements that include helping verbs and verb phrases such as, “Mom is parking the car,” or “Millie had a problem.” 6. Introduce the idea that these kinds of statements are called “What plus What” statements. Write “What” under the first barbell, “plus” or “+” under the bar, and “What” under the other barbell to reinforce and connect this idea. 7. Now write some incorrect statements on the board, such as “Bicycle racers pedal quickly”, “Math is hard”, and “Exercise is important.” Point out that although these are sentences, “quickly, hard, and important” are not nouns, therefore these cannot be “What plus what” statements. Do several more wrong statements, and have the students identify what is wrong with them, and why they do not fit the criteria of the “what plus what” statement. 8. Discuss the idea that there are relationships between things everywhere we look. Hold up a pencil and say, “The teacher holds a pencil.” Write it on the board, relating it to the barbell and the “What plus what” terms. 9. Show them a picture that is not too complicated or busy. (Grant Wood’s “American Gothic” works well if you can get a poster, over head, or project it from your computer). Start out by identifying a relationship for them such as, “Man holds pitchfork,” or “curtains hang in windows”. Write these statements on the board using the barbell format graphic as an organizer (it is important to reinforce this visual so that students will remember the structure). Ask the students to identify some relationships in the picture. You can write their responses on the board or have them write some on their own papers, depending on the age. Write whatever they say on the board, right or wrong. After you have about 10 responses on the board, evaluate them with the students. Are “what’s” or words in the bells nouns? Is the bar a verb or verb phrase? It is not important that the relationships not be limited only to what they can see. Depending on individual interpretation, there can be many implied relationships (“The woman is angry at the man”, “The people live on a farm”, “The woman’s broche is an heirloom.”). Encourage guessing at these types of relationships that aren’t obvious. Point out that they are more interesting relationships than just the ones we can already see for ourselves.

You can later do this exercise with more complicated pictures (also an excellent way to introduce works of fine art into your class). Almost any picture will work. The practice of using the picture to identify relationships that fit the “what plus what” structure, and evaluating those statements together should be done often, with all grades.

__Assessment__: All students should be able to come up with at least one good “what plus what” statement, identify the parts, and assess an incorrect one on their own. If they cannot do this, it is possible that the concept of nouns may need to be re-taught or reviewed.

Structure of the Enthymeme
//*a series of 4 mini-lessons//
 * The Enthymeme (Structure/Rules)**
 * Grade Range: 2-12**

//To download this lesson as a Word document, click here//
 * The lessons on Discourse and Identifying Relationships need to be done before beginning this series of mini-lessons.**


 * __Objective__: Students will understand that a statement that summarizes discourse (the enthymeme), is composed of specific parts. They will be able to identify those parts.**


 * __Materials__: Dry erase board and enthymeme handouts (sample included here).**


 * __Time__: 4 class periods. These can be taught as a series of 4 individual lessons in order. If presented in this way, each lesson will take approximately 20 minutes.**

//Class period 1//
 * __Process__:**


 * 1) **Review the enthymeme in relation to discourse between two people (see “discourse” lesson). You may want to review the practice part of the lesson again where you read or role play several exchanges. Have the students summarize the discourse. Make sure each statement includes the word “because”.**
 * 2) **When you have 5 to 10 statements, introduce the idea that these statements have a specific structure. They are made up of elements that are necessary for effective communication. Explain that when they write it is for the purposes of communication and their discourse will have to include a summarizing statement (now introduce the term “enthymeme”) so that they can effectively communicate their message to a reader. Tell them that they will need to understand the elements that make up the enthymeme so that they can use them for good writing.**
 * 3) **Draw a vertical line before the word “because” in each of the enthymemes. Explain that an enthymeme is made up of two parts – the “what” and the “why”. Label these parts under one of the enthymeme on the board using arrows or brackets.**


 * Sally is moving to Fairbanks because her dad got a job there. **
 * WHAT WHY**

//Class period 2//
 * 1) **Have the students help you label the rest of the enthymemes in a similar manner.**


 * 1) **Tell the students that the “what” part of the enthymeme can be broken down into two parts. They have already been introduced to the barbell and identifying relationships. Explain that the “what” statement is simply a relationship statement that can be fitted onto the barbell model. Using the graphic of the barbell, use one of the “what” statements from the enthymemes you have been working with and put it into the barbell graphic. Have the students help you do the same with the rest of the enthymemes.**

//Class period 3//


 * 1) **Reinforce the idea that the “what” part of the enthymeme must have two variables that are both nouns. One can be the pronoun “I”. They are always connected by a verb or a verb phrase. Depending on the age of the students, you can use more or fewer sentences with adjectives and prepositional phrases. If you use them, point them out and explain that they are attached to the main noun or part of the verb phrase.**


 * 1) **Give the students a handout of various enthymemes (difficulty based on age and experience). Tell them to circle the what part of each enthymeme and the why part of each enthymeme. When they have done this, go through at least some of them together, either on the board or orally. Most of the students will quickly understand that the “what” part is everything that comes before the word “because”, and the “why” is everything after.**


 * 1) **Go through the enthymemes again, this time to determine if the “what” statements are good. Remind students that they should be able to stand on their own as a sentence, and both “what’s” should be nouns. Be sure to include a few that do not meet the criteria. Students can do some or all of these on their own, but make sure you do some as a class.**

//Class period 4//


 * 1) **Direct the students to go over the enthymemes again, this time focusing on the “why” statement. Try to get them to look at the enthymeme as though it were a cause and effect statement. The “what” is the effect, the “why” is the cause. For example, in the enthymeme, “Sally is moving to Fairbanks because her dad got a job there,” You can say the effect is Sally moving to Fairbanks. What caused that? Her dad got a job there. Go through a few enthymemes with the class using this questioning technique. Point out that the main idea of the “why” cannot repeat any part of the “what” statement. This is called circular reasoning, and is not helpful in explaining anything. It adds nothing to your communication. If you say, “I like parties because they are fun,” the “why” statement is not adding anything. “Fun” is pretty much a repeat of the idea of a party – after all, parties are meant to be fun. If you say you like parties, it can be assumed that you like fun – that’s what they are all about.**


 * How do you fix the dilemma of circular reasoning? One of the problems is that your “what” statement may not be specific enough. Ask some implied questions or do some funneling to fix this; **
 * Teacher: What kinds of parties do you like? **
 * Student: Birthday parties. **
 * Teacher: Is there any party you remember in particular or one that **
 * was special? **
 * Student: My 10th birthday party. **
 * Teacher: Why? (This is the implied why) **
 * Student: Because it was a surprise party. **
 * Point out that you now have a new and improved enthymeme, “I liked my 10th birthday party because it was a surprise.” The new element – surprise – does not repeat any of the other variables, and it is an effective cause. **
 * Cause: The party was a surprise **
 * Effect: I liked my 10th birthday party. **
 * Go over many sample enthymemes with the class. There should be a few that are wrong, and that use circular reasoning so that the students can identify it and get some ideas about how to fix it.**
 * __Assessment__:**
 * Given 5 sample enthymemes a student should be able to identify the “What” and “why” parts of the statement, and the two elements of the “what” statement. Given an incorrect summary statement, a student should be able to identify what is wrong with the statement.**
 * Sample enthymemes used should be age appropriate.**

**Planning a Unit of Study Using an Enthymeme**

 * Grade Range: K-12**

//To download this lesson using a Word document, click here//


 * 1) **Determine the content area of the unit of study – any content area will work (see sample enthymemes). Integrated units of study work particularly well with the enthymeme.**
 * 2) **Make a quick list of the most important lasting ideas or connections you would like to see your students come away from this unit with. There may be many different details students remember depending on their interest, but you need to determine the key ideas and connections you want to make certain they take with them from this unit for building critical thinking and deeper understanding.**
 * 3) **Look at your list of ideas and begin to combine/fine tune them as much as possible until you can come up with a good enthymeme that embodies these ideas as much as possible. Although it is only one sentence, this process deserves some planning time on your part – it is crucial to planning a good unit of study. Collaborate with your colleagues for help or critique on the enthymeme.**
 * 4) **The variables within the enthymeme will become the guides for the material you intend to have your students study over the course of this unit (another benefit of the enthymeme as a planning tool is that it prevents straying into unrelated or unnecessary areas or activities). Now you can begin to plan and gather your materials for the unit (texts, websites, activities, projects, etc.).**
 * 5) **You may want to post the enthymeme where the students can see it as you begin your unit of study. It can also serve as a thinking guide for them as they move through the unit and will gain more meaning over time.**
 * 6) **You may choose not to post the enthymeme – in which case with some simple guidance, review and discussion, the students should be able to quickly move toward the enthymeme as a class at the end of the unit. Depending on the age level of the students, different phases of this process will take place more independently. Younger students will require some guidance from the forming of the enthymeme, through the filling in of the organic outline. Older students should be able to fill in the organic outline on their own.**
 * 7) **This basic procedure can easily be used for simply planning a lesson as well.**

**Fiction Writing**

 * Grade Levels: K-12**

//To download this lesson as a Word document, click here//

Fiction writing is much different than writing an essay or other type of informative piece. You cannot start a fiction story with an enthymeme, or you will obviously be giving away the ending. However, like informative pieces, writing a short fiction story does require pre-planning to be effective. It also must follow the “arc” of a story. That is, the main character (usually the protagonist) is established, there is a setting established, and then the plot moves along to the introduction of the antagonist. Tension or conflict then builds until there is a climax – the breaking point where a decision must be made by the protagonist – what to do? From there the story must move toward resolution (happy endings not mandatory, only realistic endings are). This type of writing is usually done in stages or steps, obviously with the planning coming first. Paragraphs don’t necessarily have to be written in order, but it is fun for the writer to be involved in the suspense as they write their story.

//TIME//** : The following procedures can be broken into a series of small lessons based on time available, and appropriateness to grade levels. One or two steps at a time for young children would be appropriate, while older students will be able to work through more. **

PLANNING THE STORY


 * 1) Determine who or what your person/creature/thing is that you will have a problem/conflict with. This can be determined by a number of methods, i.e. brainstorming, games, mad libs, etc.
 * 2) Once you have made your decision regarding #1, brainstorm a list of creative, but realistic problems that this person/creature/thing might possibly create for you. Although your subject may be fantastical, your problem should be realistic if you want to build believable conflict.
 * 3) Now write a fiction enthymeme using the ideas you chose in #1 and #2. The fiction enthymeme states, “I had a problem with _ because .” Once this sentence is determined, it can be set aside for use later.
 * 4) Where does this story take place? Determine the setting – pick a place you already know of or are familiar with so that you can write about it in a believable way. Pick only one place – remember, this is short-story writing, and it is important to keep some aspects simple so that you have time to develop characters and conflict. Now, think of that place in terms of the 5 senses – sight, smell, touch taste, sound. For each of the senses, write descriptive words or phrases that would help describe the setting.
 * 5) Choose some portion of the enthymeme to discuss to establish your relationship to the story and build your character in relation to the story. (Remember, you are the main character). For example, if the enthymeme is, “I had a problem with a talking horse because it tattled on me to my parents,” choose a portion of that enthymeme to relate to, without giving the story away, but that sets up the story. For instance, horses, talking too much, tattling, etc. Pick one part that you can talk about in a very general way – this is the character development part of the story.
 * 6) Resolution – you must determine how you will resolve this problem quickly and realistically. Being realistic is important – you can’t just say, “I woke up and it was all a dream,” and you can’t shoot the talking horse. These aren’t realistic ways to solve a dilemma – even if the character/thing creating the dilemma is fantastical. The dilemma is real, so the resolution should be real.

WRITING THE STORY


 * 1) First paragraph – character development. Tell a “mini-story” that relates you to the topic in some way. For example, “I have always liked horses…” or, “I have always hated tattlers…” or, “I have always been annoyed by people who are too talkative…”. Tell a mini-story about this. This paragraph gives you “voice”, tells the reader about your character, and draws the reader into the story.
 * 2) Second paragraph – Begin this paragraph with “One day…” and lead yourself into the setting. “One day, I was walking on the trail I take to school every day. The path was rocky and slightly muddy from the spring rains, and the air smelled fresh and dewy with the new leaves.” In this paragraph you are putting yourself into the setting, and then describing that setting using information you brainstormed about the 5 senses. The very last sentence of the paragraph brings you face-to-face with the main character/thing. “It was strange enough to see a horse on the path, but even stranger when the horse opened it’s mouth and said, ‘Hello, Jimmy’!”
 * 3) Third Paragraph – Now it’s time to write your enthymeme. Start this paragraph with your enthymeme statement. Now you will tell the story about how it came to be that this horse tattled on you (or what ever the problem is).
 * 4) Fourth paragraph – What was the result of the antagonist’s actions? What were the consequences to you? In this paragraph, you describe that, and then end the paragraph with the realization/statement that you must do so mething about it/solve the problem this has created for you.
 * 5) Fifth paragraph – Resolution. Remember what you planned for long before you wrote the story? Now it’s time to tell that little story.

__**Persuasive Writing**__ WritingConnects Ideas Enthymemes Structure Ideas Brainstorming for Ideas & Focus Organizing Ideas: The Organic Outline

__//To download this lesson as a Word document, click here// __
 * OBJECTIVES:**


 * 1) SW identify their audience and select appropriate structure of writing depending on the purpose and audience
 * 2) SW complete and apply a hook or lead appropriate to the form
 * 3) SW plan organizational structure using an enthymeme and organic outline
 * 4) SW assess and recommend transitions that establish clear relationships within and between paragraphs using transitional words or phrases to ensure the unity of the composition
 * 5) SW compose using appropriate voice and word choice
 * 6) SW formulate a resolution or conclusion that effectively connects to the enthymeme (introduction)


 * GRADE LEVEL: Gr. 11-12 **

Rhetorical Devices of Persuasion
 * MATERIALS**: 1) WS: organic outline, 2) handout: 5 Elements of Persuasive Writing, 3) WS: Of Course It’s Not Logical, 4) Visual: Literary &


 * INTRODUCTION**: By the time students are juniors or seniors in high school, they should be professionals when it comes to persuasion. After all, they have had years of trying to convince their teachers to give less homework, their parents to allow them to engage in activities that parents are not overly excited about, and their peers to follow their leads. Persuasive writing, however, presents one of the greatest writing challenges for students, and for that reason, often is not taught until the junior and senior years. All the writing techniques taught at lower levels must be brought together in this mode and enhanced by clearly organized logic. Persuasion without logic is like a kite without a breeze—it falls flat. Arguments based on opinion or that use circular reasoning (//see examples below//) will not convince anyone. Remind students that writing is a thinking process, and this piece of writing---perhaps more than any other---requires clear logic. [//Studying this mode of writing is especially meaningful to students after reading the political speeches from early American history. Those speeches found in the 11th grade American Literature anthology provide great models for students to emulate.]//

1) Break the class into groups of 3 or 4 students, and have groups brainstorm on issues in the school and/or community where change is needed. Remind them that the purpose of brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as quickly as possible. Remind students to brainstorm for quantity not quality. Tell students they should aim to generate 20-30 ideas during this time. [//See lessons that discuss brainstorming in greater detail.]//
 * PROCESS:**

2) Grade issues to find an A-1 idea. [//In this type of writing, the novel idea--one that is NEW and INTERESTING--probably isn't one on which students should focus their energies. Encourage them to consider an A-1 idea, one that either (1) benefits the most people, or (2) would result in the greatest positive impact on the school and/or community.]//

3) Develop the WHAT statement. Draw or project the framework below onto the board. Ask students, "WHAT is the issue we want to address int his piece of writing?" If, for example, the class had decided that the student dress code //is an// A-1 idea, students might answer, “The issue is student dress.” Write “student dress” in the first variable column. Now ask students, “WHAT is problematic about student dress?” They may answer, “It is regulated by a dress code in the student handbook.” Write “dress code” in the second variable column. Finally, have students add a verb/verb phrase to the chart that completes the WHAT statement and appropriately reflects the proposal the students want to convince others of.


 * WHAT || VERB || WHAT ||
 * Student dress || should not be regulated by || a dress code. ||


 * NOTE: The more general WHAT in the WHAT statement is commonly the first WHAT. **

4) Develop a logical WHY statement: [//This is probably the most critical step in// developing the enthymeme.] Draw or project a fourth column and head it WHY. Brainstorm implied questions as a whole class or within small groups. (These are questions that might come up as the relationships between elements in the issue are discussed such as):

Does student dress impact on student learning? Do parents support a dress code? Do other schools in the district/state have similar dress codes? Does student dress affect behavior? Can students afford to dress according to the code? Does having a dress code prepare students for the world of work? Whose values determine the standard for a dress code?

5) From this list of implied questions, have the class determine which issue(s) represents the best WHY statement. Use the following checklist to test the value of the WHY:

//OPINION:// //Student dress should not be determined by a school dress code because __I think students should have the freedom to wear what they want to wear.__//
 * _**The argument can be supported by facts and is not simply an opinion.

_The WHY does not rename, describe, or define either WHAT (this constitutes what is called circular reasoning). //CIRCULAR REASONING//: //Student dress should not be determined by a school dress code because __students dress however they want anyway__.//

_ The WHY is logical. //ILLOGICAL CONCLUSION// : //Student dress should not be determined by a school dress code because __this is a free society and people should be able to do whatever they want.__//

_ The WHY is unpredictable. //PREDICTABLE CONCLUSION:// //Student dress should not be determined by a school dress code because __students do not like rules.__//

When a WHY is determined, write it in the empty box under the WHY column in the chart.


 * WHAT || VERB || WHAT || WHY ||
 * Student dress || should not be regulated by || a dress code ||||  ||

6) Organize ideas in each column by: a. eliminating outliers (ideas that are not closely enough related to the variable to be included in the discussion) b. grouping ideas that are similar by labeling them with the same letters (These items will be organized into individual paragraphs within the piece of writing.) c. sequencing ideas logically by numbering each group (1, 2, 3, etc.) based on the chosen organizational approach (i.e., chronological, spatial, compare- contrast, etc.)

7) Strategies to employ as students begin to write: a. Although typically the enthymeme would be the first paragraph in the paper, it fits nicely at the end of the WHAT #1 paragraph because the first WHAT is usually a __summary__ of the history of the issue. The enthymeme placed here also provides a transition into the discussion of  the WHAT #2 paragraph.  b. Each column of information will be used to develop a __minimum__ of one paragraph.  c. Anticipate the opposition: Brainstorm in small groups or as a whole class, making a list of opposing issues. [//You may find it helpful, once//  //again, to use implied questions in generating this list.]//  d. Organization when writing the information in the WHY column is critical, and using the pro-and-con structure works best for this type of  writing. (See __Literature: The American Experience__, Prentice-Hall, 2000, p. 111) Structurally, this part of the paper resembles a  comparison/contrast paper, and as such, either a point-by-point or a block method will suit the purpose. The argument, therefore, pivots on transitions within and always acknowledges the opposing point first. //[ Refer to lessons on // // writing a comparison/contrast paper.] //

(1) POINT-BY-POINT method would look like this:

PRO + CON + PRO + CON + PRO + CON

(2) BLOCK method would look like this:

 PRO PRO PRO + CON CON CON

e. Students should support their positions with logic and facts, not opinions (1) avoid half-truths (deliberately leaving out important information) (2) avoid vague statements (be specific in stating problems and proposing solutions.)

f. Encourage students to use literary/rhetorical devices modeled in political speeches found in their literary anthologies in order to: (1) establish common ground through shared experiences or beliefs through (references such as these also resonant emotionally with an audience). (a) political allusions (b) Biblical allusions (c) humor (d) metaphors/similes (e) rhetorical questions (2) help the audience remember what was said through (a) repetition (b) alliteration (c) humor (d) metaphors/similes

[//NOTE: The difference between an opinion piece and a persuasive piece rests primarily in the emotional tone. A persuasive piece employs techniques designed to not only logically convince the audience of the veracity of the argument but to emotionally appeal to the audience to take some action// .]

g. Use the connotative aspect of words to their advantage (//See an explanation and// //exercises in __Literature: The American Experience__,// //Prentice-Hall, 2000, p.184// .)

h. Draw a plausible conclusion and ask the audience to take action in a final paragraph ( //Click here for worksheet on logic// //)//

**ASSESSMENT: Final persuasive piece that is scored using the AGSD writing rubric (Adjust the focus of scoring based on the level of instruction.) The focus for this piece might be: 1) use of hook or lead as an introduction; 2) organization of content that acknowledge the opposing point first; 3) implementation of at least two rhetorical methods that we studied; 4) conclusion that calls for action and connects with the introduction**



__Collaboration: Using the PQP Process__ __//To download this lesson as a Word document, click here// __ 1. SW discuss writing in peer/teacher conferences 2. SW assess, recommend, and apply revisions for own and peer writing given a checklist, scoring guide, or a rubric 3. SW integrate peer/teacher feedback into their revision
 * OBJECTIVES: **


 * GRADE LEVEL: 9-12 **

**MATERIALS:** (1) PQP visual aid, (2) writing sample to use in practicing the process

**INTRODUCTION**: In this lesson students will critically evaluate the clarity of a piece of writing using an oral communicate process called PQP. (This lesson builds on skills in using implied questions to thoroughly develop a piece of writing by including details and explanations.) Explain to the class that sometimes ideas that seem clear to us when we are writing or speaking not always so clear to others. Ask them to listen to this piece and see if they would agree.

1. Read any current magazine article or fiction piece that might be of interest to students, but leave out important details. 2. After reading the piece, engage the students in discussion on the following three questions: a. What did you really enjoy or think was especially interesting about this piece? b. Was there anything you didn’t understand or parts that seemed unclear? Were any implied questions left unanswered? c. If you were the editor preparing this piece for publication, what advice would you have for the writer that would make this piece of greater interest for the reader?
 * PROCEDURE: **

3. Explain that the conversation that the class just engaged in is a process called PQP: Praise, Question, Polish. This process is a way to critically evaluate material that you have read or heard and is on that adults in real life situations engage in all the time: people discuss news articles and broadcasts, books, and speeches given by politicians in just this way. Remind students that they will one day be adults who should be ablt to critically evaluate information they hear and read, if for no other reason so they can vote responsibly on political candidates and issues.

4. Explain further that this process is also a COLLABORATIVE process and will provide a framework for each student to get helpful feedback from his or her peers as he/she revises for precision and clarity. Remind students that they typically will write for an audience of educated adults, and that in the adult world of work, people typically get feedback from others on letters, reports, and contracts to insure the communication is clear and precise.

5. Ask: Are there other situations they may be in as adults where they would have to critically evaluate issues? Allow students to brainstorm when these skills would be helpful. (school issues, work-related issues, legal issues, financial issues, etc.)

6. Explain that they will be using this process throughout the year to not only hone their own critical thinking skills but to help each other sharpen their communicate skills, both oral and written.

7. Divide the class into groups of 3-4 students. Instruct them in this process by emphasizing several important aspects: a. This is an oral process. As such each person will read aloud his/her paper to the group and the group must listen carefully (and make personal notes if necessary) in order to be able to give feedback to the reader. b. A second paper will be read only AFTER the entire group has thoroughly discussed the first paper. c. After a paper has been read aloud, each person in the group should share what he/she thought was especially interesting or something they liked. (This may include descriptions, humorous anecdotes, or the skilled way the writer built suspense.) d. Next, each person in the group asks at least one question to clarify issues that the writer may not have clarified. (Remind students to consider implied questions that my have been unanswered.) e. Finally, each person in the group gives the writer ONE suggestion for improving the piece. f. Although a student may PASS in each round of the process, encourage students to find something to comment on (assuming that none of us are so skilled that we can’t benefit from the critical evaluation of our writing) g. The writer/reader should note suggestions and comments on his/her own paper throughout the process so that appropriate changes can be made in the next draft of the piece. 8. Initially, this lesson may take two days (one to explain the process and one for students to engage in it). After this initial introduction, however, students should be able to move into small groups and complete this process when appropriate without much explanation beyond, "It's time to move into PQP groups."

**ASSESSMENT:** The student’s initial draft (complete w/comments) should be turned in along with their next draft. The second draft should evidence the incorporation of suggested changes.

__**//To download this lesson as a Word document, click here//** __ **Part I - Brainstorming for Ideas & Focus**
 * WRITING ABOUT LITERATURE: COMPARISON/CONTRAST ESSAY **

**OBJECTIVE**: SW design their own enthymeme with or without a prompt

**GRADE RANGE:** Gr. 9-12

**1.** Worksheet: organizational chart (i.e., Venn diagram or other type: //click on link for examples used in teaching this lesson)// **2.** bottle (or picture) of A-1 steak sauce **3.** visual that displays grading (A = A-1 idea, B = better idea, C = common idea)
 * MATERIALS: **

**INTRODUCTION:** [//In this lesson students will brainstorm and grade ideas in order to formulate an A-1 enthymeme for a comparison/contrast paper.]//

Writing a comparison/contrast paper about literature is a more sophisticated assignment that presents a unique challenge in formulating an enthymeme. Unlike when a student writes to a prompt, students are limited to the issues intrinsic to the literary piece (fiction or non-fiction) in establishing the variables for the enthymeme. Nevertheless, grading the ideas is still a useful approach in discovering an A-1 idea to use in formulating the enthymeme, so encourage students put down all possibilities when brainstorming. Some ideas really do have greater reader interest than others. (//This lesson would follow reading assignments that students have already completed and will possibly require a bit of research to complete.)//


 * PROCEDURE: **

1. First, remind students WHY it is important to brainstorm ideas before formulating an enthymeme: Older students understand the importance of brainstorming when you compare the process to shopping for a prom dress or a car. Ask students why they don’t buy the first dress or car they see that they like? Students will probably be able to explain the importance of seeing all the possibilities before deciding what to buy (or in this case, to write). You could even remind members of the class who hunt that they would probably not shoot the first bear or moose or caribou they saw either---especially if they were looking for a trophy hide or rack. Hunters usually scout their prey first. These examples obviously resonate with older students.

2. Divide the class into groups of 3-4. Give each group a copy of the organizational chart to use to record ideas when brainstorming (//Two examples of such charts are provided at this link.//) and have them decide which member will be the recorder for the group. I usually try to motivate teams to generate many ideas by having them compete with their classmates in teams using one of the following rewards (You know what will get your own students motivated to compete for ideas; do what works):

a. 2 bonus points in the next spelling test for the team that generates the most ideas OR   b. early release to get into the lunch line before others in the class

3. Remind students also that they should not take time to evaluate the quality of the ideas during the brainstorming process—that issue will be settled when the ideas are graded.

4. Encourage the students to use implied questions when brainstorming the topics. To stimulate thinking about implied questions before brainstorming, allow 5-7 minutes for each student to write down all the questions that come to their mind on the topic. They should ask themselves what questions others might have on the topic as well. Brainstorm for quantity, not quality. (Students should generate 20-30 ideas when brainstorming.)

5. Next, allow 3-5 minutes for teams to list all the ideas they have on the topic, including answers to the implied questions they each wrote in step #4. In writing a comparison/contrast paper, I have students list everything they can think of on __only one part__ of the comparison at a time. For example, in comparing the Virginia and the Jamestown colonies, I would first have students list everything they learned about the Virginia colony from their reading. Then, I restart the competition for another 3-5 minutes as students list everything they learned about the Jamestown colony. The group that has listed the most ideas (either for one issue or both combined) wins the reward.

6. Allow the winning team to share their list of ideas first and either write these on the board or project them for the entire class to see. After the winning team shares all ideas they have, other teams may add any additional ideas they may have had to the list.

7. The next step in this process is grading the ideas. Explain that we will classify each idea by giving it a grade of A, B, or  C  C = a common idea (one that would not be unique or have much interest for the average educated adult) B = a better idea (one that would have greater interest) A = a unique idea (one that would have great interest for the average educated adult.) This is what we call an A-1 idea [//You can use a bottle of A-1 steak sauce as a visual to help students remember that// //this is the quality of information that we want in formulating an enthymeme//.]

8. If grading results in no A-1 ideas, try funneling the B and C ideas (//taking a big idea and making it smaller; moving from a general to a more specific aspect of the idea//) so they are more specific. Grade the resulting list of ideas to find an A-1 topic for comparison. //[NOTE: If the class is not able to generate an A-1 idea by doing this, select the best B idea to work with.]//

9. Finding a really great idea to use in formulating an enthymeme is what grading the idea is all about. You will probably find in a comparison/contrast paper that the unique idea is not the topic itself, but some __aspect__ of that topic. For example, in comparing the Virginia and Jamestown colonies, the colonies themselves are not new and interesting information for the average educated adult, but in brainstorming the class should discover a unique aspect of those colonies that would be of interest when compared or contrasted.

**ASSESSMENT:** Students will turn in the worksheet on which the group brainstormed and graded their ideas with the A-1 idea(s) circled.

__Comparison Contrast Essay part 2__
__Currently this lesson can only be viewed on a downloadable Word document.__ __//**To download this lesson on a Word document, click here**// __ **Part II - Enthymemes Structure Ideas**
 * WRITING ABOUT LITERATURE: COMPARISON/CONTRAST PAPER **

1. SW design their own enthymeme with or without a prompt 2. SW evaluate and modify the enthymeme (thesis statement) using the four rules for constructing an enthymeme.
 * OBJECTIVES: **

**GRADE LEVEL:** Gr. 9-12

**MATERIALS:** enthymeme worksheet for comparison/contrast writing

**INTRODUCTION:** [//Students typically ask three questions when given a writing assignment: 1) What should I say? 2) How do I begin? 3) How much do I need to write? This lesson on constructing the enthymeme and developing the organic outline, should relieve students’ stress about writing because it answers all three questions.//]

Explain to the students that they will use an A-1 idea from the previous brainstorming activity (//see Writing a Comparison/Contrast Paper Part I//) to construct an enthymeme that will not only direct WHAT they write, but will help them know how to begin. Using the enthymeme, they will develop an organic outline that will determine the length of the piece they will write as well.

1) Project or draw on the board the following outline.
 * PROCEDURE: **


 * WHAT #1 || + || WHAT #2 ||
 * Topic + issue || verb || Topic + issue ||

2) Explain that in formulating the WHAT statement of the enthymeme in comparison/contrast writing, both WHAT #1 and WHAT #2 will have t__wo__ components. WHAT #1 is the topic + the specific aspect about the topic that is being compared to WHAT #2. WHAT #2 is the topic + the specific aspect about the topic that is being compared to WHAT #1.

3) Ask students to identify each WHAT from the brainstormed A-1 idea(s) and write the ideas in the corresponding boxes in the chart, adding an appropriate verb or verb phrase. (//See examples below//)


 * WHAT #1 || + || WHAT #2 ||
 * Topic + issue || verb || Topic + issue ||
 * Plymouth colony + voyage || was [more difficult than] || Virginia colony + voyage ||
 * Plymouth colony + colonists who became ill || were better treated [than] || Virginia colony + colonists who became ill ||

4) Next add a WHY column to the chart and ask the class to discuss WHY the difference or similarity exists between the two issues being compared. This step may require some additional brainstorming to determine the best WHY, although when working with non-fiction, once the WHAT statement is formulated, the WHY is often obvious.


 * WHAT #1 || + || WHAT #2 || WHY ||
 * Topic + issue || verb || Topic + issue ||  ||
 * Plymouth colony + voyage || was [more difficult than] || Virginia colony + voyage || leader was more experienced ||
 * Plymouth colony + colonists who became ill || were better treated [than] || Virginia colony + colonists who became ill || religious beliefs shaped attitudes and guided behaviors ||

The resulting enthymemes read: a) The voyage of the Plymouth colony was more difficult than the voyage of the Virginia colony because the leader of the Virginia colony was more experienced than the leader of the Plymouth colony. b) The Plymouth colonists who became ill were better treated than the Virginia colonists who became ill because the religious beliefs of the Plymouth colonists shaped the attitudes and guided the behaviors of the colonists in a manner that seemed lacking among the Virginia colonists.

5) Sometimes the use of the word “because” in the WHY statement does not seem appropriate, in which case the wording must be “tweeked” as illustrated below.


 * WHAT #1 || + || WHAT #2 || WHY ||
 * Topic + issue || verb || Topic + issue ||  ||
 * Onondaga people + values || are [similar] || Modoc people + values || reflected in their myths of origin ||

The resulting enthymeme reads: __The values of the Onondaga people are similar to the values of the Modoc people as reflected in their myths of origin.__ Notice that the word “because” has been replaced with “as reflected.”

6) OPTION: Older students may at times independently construct their own enthymemes. Nevertheless, it is helpful to have them verify the integrity of the enthymeme by completing the enthymeme worksheet with the appropriate variables from their enthymemes (//click on this link//).

Here are two examples that illustrate how faulty enthymeme construction can be identified using this process:

a) The voyage to the New World was bad because the slaves below deck were sick.


 * WHAT || VERB || WHAT || WHY ||
 * Topic + issue || verb || Topic + issue ||  ||
 * Voyage + //?// || was [bad] || //?// || slaves below deck were sick ||

b) The Plymouth Plantation had a harder time going to the new land because of the rough ride to the new land.

//[topic? + ?]// || because of the rough ride [//circular reasoning]// ||
 * WHAT || VERB || WHAT || WHY ||
 * Topic + issue || verb || Topic + issue ||  ||
 * Plymouth Plantation + trip || had [a harder time going] || the new land

Providing this structure for self-assessment will allow students to see the flaws in their enthymemes. Have them restructure faulty enthymemes so that the comparison or contrast is clearly stated and circular reasoning (//see lesson on circular reasoning//) is eliminated.

**CONCLUSION:** The three critical questions students ask can now be answered: //1) What should I say?// The enthymeme gives direction to __what__ the student will write. //2) How do I begin?// Although more advanced students may want to add a hook or lead to their enthymeme, the __enthymeme itself__ is adequate as a beginning. //3) How much do I need to write?// The next lesson will cover how to fully develop the organic outline; however, the student now can clearly see that each WHAT has two components (each component will be at least one paragraph) and the WHY will have at least one paragraph. If the enthymeme is written as a stand-alone paragraph, the student will understand that this piece needs to be at least six paragraphs long.

**ASSESSMENT:** Have students construct and assess two original enthymemes for a comparison/contrast piece using the enthymeme worksheet. Faulty enthymemes should be revised on the worksheet.

__//**To download this lesson on a Word document, click here**// __

**WRITING A COMPARISON/CONTRAST PAPER** **Part III - Organizing Ideas: The Organic Outline** 1. SW plan organizational structure using an enthymeme and organic outline 2. SW complete an organic outline derived from the enthymeme 3. SW rearrange and/or select details to improve focus of writing, support main ideas, clarify topic sentences, and make the sequence clear. 4. SW assess and recommend an appropriate structure based on an organic outline from an enthymeme (thesis statement) (e.g., order by chronology, importance, Introduce-Define-Prove)
 * OBJECTIVES:**
 * 5) SW integrate research-based information and analysis in research projects or extended reports.


 * GRADE LEVEL**: Gr. 9-12


 * MATERIALS:** 1) WS: organic outline, 2) visual: the “5 Ws”


 * INTRODUCTION:** [Since comparison/contrast writing is usually assigned to upper-level students, students may already understand that the enthymeme and each variable within the enthymeme represent separate paragraphs. Some students, however, may be new to the AGSD system, so it would be best to not assume that students know this. NOTE: This lesson may need to be broken down into smaller units of information for lower-level students; upper-level students, however, are typically able to absorb the information presented and apply the instruction in one or two class periods.]

Explain that when writing a comparison/contrast paper, each variable in the enthymeme can represent more than one paragraph. (This is sometimes a revelation to students who don’t see how an enthymeme can help them write a paper that is more than four or five paragraphs.) Explain that in this lesson the organic outline will be developed with details that will later be incorporated into the piece of writing.


 * PROCEDURE:**

1. Pass out the organic outline worksheet. (Click here for organic outline WS) Have students write their enthymeme at the top and fill in the variables from the enthymeme in sequential order as headers for the columns in the outline. (Suggestion: You might begin using the term “thesis statement” with older students rather than “enthymeme” since most colleges will use this term.)

2. Review or suggest the following techniques as approaches to helping students generate information to include in each paragraph: a) revisit/list implied questions for the variable since the information students will list in the column should address issues that would be raised by the implied questions. [Click here for lesson on implied questions] b) review the 5 Ws—who, what, when, where, why—since students should consider listing people, events, places, concepts, and issues to include in the writing discussion.

3) Begin with the first WHAT column and brainstorm ideas to include when writingabout that specific variable. Remind students that since this is a brainstorming process they should not necessarily take time to evaluate the worth of ideas, put ideas in order, or write in complete sentences. (More information at this step in the writing process is always better than less information as students can always delete information deemed unessential later.) Encourage students to quickly list information, allowing approximately five minutes for students to fill up the column. [REMEMBER: In a comparison/contrast paper, each WHAT will have two elements that will need to be brainstormed—a) the WHAT topic and b) the specific issue of that topic that is being compared with the other WHAT topic. At this point in the writing process, it is not necessary to tease apart the two elements since that will happen as students begin to organize the content. It is important, however, to include both elements during the brainstorm. Using the previous example, students would brainstorm not only about the Plymouth colony but they would include the more specific information about the voyage as well.]

may be necessary before proceeding. New information gleaned from research should be added to the appropriate column (WHAT/WHAT/ or WHY)
 * 4) If any column seems to lack significant information, additional reading/research

5) Next, evaluate and classify listed items by: a. eliminating outliers (ideas that are not closely enough related to the variable to be included in the discussion) b. grouping items that are similar (These items will be organized into individual paragraphs within the piece of writing.) c. sequencing items logically by numbering what to write about first, second, third, etc. (This assumes some previous instruction on ways to order information such as chronological, spatial, degree of importance, I-D-P, etc.) [Suggestion: students will remember this process better if you name it---maybe call it the EGS method.]

6) Proceed to the second WHAT column and repeat steps 2 & 3.

7.) Finally, evaluate and categorize items in the WHY column by repeating steps 2 & 3.

**ASSESSMENT:** The student should turn in an organic outline that demonstrates the application of the objectives outlined at the beginning of the lesson.

__//**To download this lesson on a Word document, click here**// __ **WRITING A COMPARISON/CONTRAST PAPER** **Part IV: Developing Paragraphs Using Transitional** **words/Phrases** **Organizing Ideas: The Organic Outline**

**OBJECTIVES:** 1) SW construct a topic sentence that encompasses a variable from the enthymeme 2) SW support the enthymeme and the topic sentence with relevant details 3) SW assess and recommend transitions that establish clear relationships within and between paragraphs using transitional words or phrases to ensure the unity of the composition

**GRADE LEVEL: Gr. 9-12**

**MATERIALS:** 1) WS: organic outline, 2) WS: Developing Topic Sentences, 3) visual: 6 Ways to Develop Paragraphs 4) WS: Using Transitions to Compare/Contrast

**INTRODUCTION: [**//This lesson assumes that students already understand how a paragraph is structured__. If this background is lacking, use Developing Topic Sentences worksheet (click here) to help students develop topic sentences that encompass a variable from the enthymeme.__ Nevertheless, before launching into explanations about transitional words and phrases, it is helpful to remind students of the following// //about paragraphs:]//

1. Have students examine the information they listed in their organic outlines during the brainstorming in the previous lesson. They should have grouped items in each column that were similar. If they have not done that, have them do so before continuing. 2. Explain that since a paragraph is limited to one aspect of a topic, each grouping should address only one aspect of the topic. Have students verify that the items they grouped are related and deal with only one aspect of the topic. 3. Based on this examination, have students count the number of paragraphs their paper will most likely contain. Since, in a comparison/contrast paper, each WHAT variable includes two issues (the topic and a specific aspect of the topic), the information listed in each column will develop a __minimum__ of two paragraphs. Students should realize that this paper will total a __minimum__ of six paragraphs: (1) enthymeme, (2) WHAT #1 topic, (3) WHAT #1 specific aspect, (4) WHAT #2 topic, (5) WHAT #2 specific aspect, (6) WHY. 4. Remind students to think of a paragraph like a sandwich: the topic sentence and the clincher sentence of a paragraph form a framework between which the content of the paragraph is sandwiched. [//Sometimes I ask students to consider how much “stuff” they like on their sub sandwiches. Most students will admit they don’t build skimpy sandwiches!]// A paragraph should: “Tell me what you’re going to tell me (topic sentence), then tell me (body), then tell me what you just told me (clincher sentence).” 5. Display the poster of the 6 Ways to Develop Paragraphs (//click here)// to assist students who struggle in understanding how to develop paragraph content. Say: Although it is common to use more than one method when developing paragraphs within the same column of the organic outline, this lesson will focus on how to use transitional words/phrases to pivot between ideas when comparing and/or contrasting.

**PROCESS:** 1. Explain that in this lesson, as the class works to develop their ideas, they will also be considering what transitional words/phrases will be needed to join ideas and make thoughts flow smoothly. Help students understand that transitional words/phrases are necessary “pivots” in comparison/contrast writing using this illustration: Ask a basketball player to demonstrate how a pivot maneuver is used during play. If demonstrated correctly, the player’s foot will not leave the surface of the floor but will, instead, “pivot” on the floor, providing the player’s stance vital flexibility as the next move is strategically analyzed. Explain that in a comparison/contrast paper, the idea expressed in the enthymeme is clarified through the use of specific transitional words/phrases that enable the reader to “pivot” back-and-forth, from one idea to another without totally losing “sight” or disconnecting from the first idea. These “pivots” allow the reader to “see” the differences/similarities between the two subjects being compared.

2. Explain that two organizational strategies are used in comparison/contrast writing: (//click here for visual used to illustrate these methods//) a. Point-by-point method (A + B + A + B + A + B + A + B + A + B)   b. Block method (AAAAA + BBBBB) [//The plus (+) represents a transition.]//

3. Hand out worksheet Using Transitions to Compare/Contrast (//click here//). Have students circle or underline each transitional word/phrase as you read the paragraphs aloud. Make a list of the words/phrases that the students found and add to it if additional ones are suggested. Permanently post the list somewhere in the classroom so that students can refer to it as they write their comparison/contrast pieces.

4. Complete the activities listed at the bottom of the handout.

5. As students begin writing, encourage them to focus on one column at a time. They should develop their writing using either method by incorporating transitions appropriately.

6. When doing peer editing, encourage PQP groups to listen specifically for and provide feedback to the writer on transitional words/phrases that clarify the comparisons/contrasts.

**ASSESSMENT:** Have students use highlighters to mark transitional words/phrases before turning in assignment.

__**The Noun Test**__ __//**To download this lesson on a Word document, click here**// __ __One simple way to teach nouns, or to simply identify nouns after you have taught the concept is to have students learn to give the Noun Test. It is a simple test by which students can very easily determine whether or not a word is a noun.__

__When students are writing and evaluating summary statements/enthymemes, it is very important that they be able to identify nouns, so this simple test can be very helpful.__

__Begin by giving the noun test to the students, and later, when evaluating enthymemes, you can tell students to perform the noun test on the elements to determine if they are correct.__

Objective__: To teach students to easily identify nouns.__

Time__: One class period – should be repeated often.__

Process__:__

__After coming to the conclusion that nouns are a person, place, thing, or idea, it is easy to put this into practice. Simply write the word “the” on the board with a line after it;__

__The__ _ __OR__ __A__ OR An _

Explain to students that you can add one word to that and it makes sense or doesn’t sound funny (without adding any other words), it is a noun. For example, you can say “the fish, a window, the personality, the information, a city,” and they all sound ok. We can assume that those words are nouns. However, if you say, “the quickly, the yellow, the far, the soft, the write,” these sound funny. It is probably safe to assume that these words are not nouns. Inevitably some will offer up words like, “the jump, the kick, the run”. Explain that some words can be verbs or nouns depending how they are used in the sentence. For those types of words, you will need to examine how they are used in the sentence to make the determination. Most words that you will be testing in actual enthymemes, will either clearly pass the noun test, or they won’t.

For proper nouns, the noun test varies somewhat. You can simply say;

The person named The place called __The thing called__ The idea called _

__That way, it is easy to see that you can say, “The person named George Washington, the place called Seattle, the thing called The Statue of Liberty, and the idea called Manifest Destiny.”__

__To get students used to the idea, simply give them a list of words like;__

__Boy, pencil, information, fast, sloppy, write, shine, run, problem, over.__

__The test should go quickly – you give the word and the students write, N (for noun), X (for not a noun). After the test when you review, remind students that they should put an N by words like “run”. We are not concerned with whether or not it is also a verb, only that it can pass the noun test. If we see the word in a sentence, we can then examine it more closely (or apply the verb test).__

__When assessing enthymemes, when you get to the question about whether or not the variables are nouns, it is a simple matter to have students apply the noun test to them.__

Assessment__: After some practice, students should be able to get at least 80% correct on any given noun test.__

The Verb Test
__//**To download this lesson on a Word document, click here**// __ __This should be taught after the noun test. They can then be used to be together. Both tests are very helpful when assessing enthymemes.__

Objective__: Students will learn to quickly identify whether or not a word is a verb.__

Time__: one class period – should be repeated often__

Process__:__

__After you have established the basic ideas about verbs with your class, (they are an action, or a state of being), you can teach them how to take the verb test. Use the pronouns he, she, or they. You can add other words if it helps to make sense. For example;__

__She__ runs __He__ jumps __They__ sleep __She__ is __(cold)__ __He__ has __(a motorcycle)__ __They__ are __(noisy)__

__Then throw in some other words so they can see what sounds “funny” or wrong. For example;__

__She dog__ __He window__ __They far__

__Give the students a verb tests. You may want to use words like the following;__

__Sleeps, jumps, eats, spell, cat, anything, under, fold, upstairs, wanders__

__Tell them that they can use the words she, he, or they to test each word. If the word does not fit well with one of those pronouns, then it is probably not a verb.__

__After students are familiar with this test, they should use it to assess enthymemes (the “bar” in the what statement should be a verb or a verb phrase).__

Assessment__: Given a list of words, students should pass the verb test with 80% accuracy.